9 species
|
Santa Cruz
|
1998
|
63
|
97 %
| | |
N/A
|
First study to describe P. downsi in bird nests on Santa Cruz Island
|
Ecology
|
O
|
Fessl, Couri, Tebbich 2001 [29]
|
12 species
|
Santa Cruz
|
1998–2000
|
177
|
97 %
|
15.7 ± 7.4–49.8 ± 31.2 (0–182)
|
27 %
|
Number of larvae increased with nestling age; P. downsi not found in nests during incubation
|
Intensity compared for nestling age <8 days vs. >8d; species differed in intensity
|
Ecology
|
O
|
Fessl, Tebbich 2002 [28]
|
3 Darwin’s finch species
|
Santa Cruz
|
2000, 2004, 2005
|
63
|
100 %
| |
−32.4–95.2 %
|
Damage to nestling nasal cavities; calculated 18–55 % overnight blood loss in nestlings due to parasitism
|
Identify two stage life cycle of P. downsi with 1st instar within nestling nares and 2nd and 3rd instar feeding externally
|
Ecology
|
O
|
Fessl, Sinclair, Kleindorfer 2006 [42]
|
2 Darwin’s finch species
|
Santa Cruz
|
2000, 2004
|
27
|
100 %
|
18.4 ± 2.4–23.2 ± 4.2
|
66 %
|
Parasitized nestlings had 61 % lower survival, 56 % lower body mass, 28 % lower hemoglobin concentration
|
11 nests prayed with 1 % permethrim (~1 P. downsi left per nest; range 0–5 larvae)
|
Ecology
|
E
|
Fessl, Kleindorfer, Tebbich 2006 [41]
|
Darwin’s finches
|
All islands
| | | | | |
P. downsi given highest risk ranking for invasive species that negatively impact endemic fauna
|
23 % (around 463 species) of Galapagos invertebrate species are introduced of which 6 are confirmed to be highly invasive and harmful to endemic species
|
Ecology
| |
Causton, Peck, Sinclair, Roque-Albelo, Hodgson, Landry 2006 [26]
|
Small ground finch
|
Santa Cruz, Floreana, Isabela
|
2004
|
24
|
92 %
|
23 ± 6 (0–90)
| |
2 % lower hemoglobin concentration per additional larva
|
Effect of clutch size on P. downsi number per nestling
|
Ecology
|
O
|
Dudaniec, Kleindorfer, Fessl 2006 [44]
|
6 Darwin’s finch species
|
Santa Cruz
|
1998–2005
|
131
|
100 %
|
30.2 ± 4–66.8 ± 7.6
|
55 %
|
Positive association between P. downsi intensity and rainfall (eight year study); same intensity across habitats on Santa Cruz
|
Species differences in intensity
|
Ecology
|
O
|
Dudaniec, Fessl, Kleindorfer 2007 [33]
|
Darwin’s finches
|
13 islands
|
1998–2005
|
515
| |
27.0 (1–182)
| |
P. downsi was found on 11 of 13 islands sampled (absent from flat arid islands); more parasites in highland nests on elevated islands
|
Lowland nests on elevated islands had more P. downsi than lowland nests on flat islands
|
Ecology
|
O
|
Wiedenfeld, Jiménez, Fessl, Kleindorfer, Valarezo 2007 [39]
|
5 Darwin’s finch species
|
Santa Cruz, Floreana, Isabela
|
2004–2006
|
64
|
100 %
| | |
High gene flow between islands; some genetic differentiation of P. downsi on Floreana; evidence for genetic bottleneck
|
Sequenced CO1 mitochondrial gene fragments
|
Genetics, Ecology
|
O
|
Dudaniec, Gardner, Donnellan, Kleindorfer 2008 [40]
|
Medium ground finch
|
Santa Cruz
|
2004–2006
|
63
|
64–98 %
|
(0–200)
|
16–37 %
|
Number of P. downsi per nestling (but not per nest) predicted survival; no effect of P. downsi on nestling size
|
Nests earlier in the breeding season had more P. downsi per nest
|
Ecology
|
O
|
Huber 2008 [34]
|
Small ground finch
|
Santa Cruz
|
2008
|
623
| | | |
36.3 % of adult birds had malformed beaks with enlarged naris (likely caused by P. downsi during the nestling phase)
| |
Ecology
|
O
|
Galligan, Kleindorfer 2009 [48]
|
5 Darwin’s finch species
|
Santa Cruz
|
2000–2004
|
43
|
100 %
|
23.0 ± 3–57.0 ± 4
| |
Larger finches built larger nests; within species, larger nests had more P. downsi
| |
Behavior
|
O
|
Kleindorfer, Dudaniec 2009 [90]
|
Small ground finch
|
Floreana
|
2004–2006
|
39
|
94 %
|
8.0 ± 1.6–39.3 ± 4.6 (0–78)
|
3–33.4 %
|
Arid lowland nests had 80 % fewer P. downsi and 91 % lower in-nest mortality than highland nests
| |
Ecology
|
O
|
O’Connor, Dudaniec, Kleindorfer 2010 [89]
|
Medium ground finch
|
Santa Cruz, Daphne Major
|
2008
|
67
| | | |
More Philornis-specific antibodies in females than males, and more during the nesting period
|
No P. downsi found on Daphne Major
|
Ecology, Behavior
|
O
|
Huber, Owen, Koop, King, Grant, Grant, Clayton 2010 [46]
|
3 Darwin’s finch species
|
Santa Cruz, Floreana
|
2008
|
11
|
89 %
|
27.1 ± 8.5 (0–74)
|
79.2 %
|
Multiple P. downsi entries into the nest during incubation and feeding; nestlings stood on top of each other presumably to avoid larvae; adults preened nestling nares and nest base; nestling consumed larva
|
In-nest video; altered time budgets and behavior in heavily parasitized nests; adults removed dead nestling from nest
|
Behavior, Ecology
|
O
|
O’Connor, Robertson, Kleindorfer 2010 [49]
|
5 Darwin’s finch species
|
Santa Cruz, Floreana
|
2004–2006
|
57
|
100 %
|
30.8 ± 16.5 (5–65)
| |
Genetic relatedness among P. downsi within nests was 57 % lower on Santa Cruz than on Floreana Island; between 1–6 different females laid their eggs per finch nest; each female mated with ~2 different males; each female laid ~5 eggs per finch nest with a maximum of 24 from one female
| |
Genetics, Ecology, Behavior
|
O
|
Dudaniec, Gardner, Kleindorfer 2010 [117]
|
Medium tree finch
|
Floreana
|
2006, 2008
|
30
|
100 %
|
43.1 ± 10.7–65.6 ± 8.5 (8–96)
|
20–38 % total brood loss; 53 % of nests with partial or total brood loss
|
Parasite intensity did not predict fledging success; parasitized nestlings had grossly enlarged nares and tissue loss
|
Highest P. downsi intensity in critically endangered medium tree finch
|
Ecology
|
O
|
O’Connor, Sulloway, Robertson, Kleindorfer 2010 [38]
|
Mangrove finch
|
Isabela
|
2006–2009
|
15
|
100
|
40.8 ± 15.3 sd
|
14 %
|
Less rat predation after rat control (30 % predation after control versus 54 % predation before); P. downsi explained 14 % nestling mortality
|
Before and after rat control
|
Ecology
|
O + E
|
Fessl, Young, Young, Rodríguez-Matamoros, Dvorak, Tebbich 2010 [63]
|
Medium ground finch
|
Santa Cruz
|
2008
|
48
|
90 %
|
37.5 ± 4.9
|
96 %
|
Parasitized nestlings had ~30 % shorter primary feather length and 88 % lower fledging success
|
Nylon stocking placed over wire hoop as barrier to P. downsi; reduced parasite intensity to ~21 larvae per nest
|
Ecology, Behavior
|
E
|
Koop, Huber, Laverty, Clayton 2011 [63]
|
Darwin’s finches
|
All islands
|
2012-present
| | | | |
Summary of known P. downsi biology and impacts on endemic land birds
|
Launch of the P. downsi Action Plan
|
Ecology, Behavior, Genetics
| |
Causton, Cunninghame, Tapia 2013 [72]
|
Medium ground finch
|
Santa Cruz
|
2010
|
30 (15 control, 15 exp.)
| |
44.7 ± 6 (5–79)
| |
No effect of P. downsi on attending female corticosterone level, body condition or hematocrit level
|
15 nests sprayed with 1 % permethrin (~0 per nest)
| |
E
|
Knutie, Koop, French, Clayton 2013 [102]
|
Medium ground finch
|
Santa Cruz
|
2010
|
43 (22 control,21 exp)
|
100 %
|
38.5 ± 5.1
|
100 %
|
Compared with fumigated nests, females at parasitized nests had more P. downsi-specific antibodies, spent 42 % less time brooding and 74 % more time standing erect in the nest
|
14 females and 10 males from fumigated nests, 15 females and 10 males from parasitized nests
|
Behavior
|
E
|
Koop, Owen, Knutie, Aguilar, Clayton 2013 [47]
|
Medium ground finch
|
Santa Cruz
|
2009
|
13 (7 control, 6 exp.)
|
83 %
|
30.5 ± 7.5
|
86 %
|
No effect of rainfall on P. downsi intensity (two year study)
|
6 nests sprayed with 1 % permethrin (zero P. downsi)
|
Ecology
|
E
|
Koop, Le Bohec, Clayton 2013 [88]
|
Small ground finch
|
Floreana
|
2010
|
14 (7 control, 7 exp.)
|
100 %
|
22.7 ± 3.9 (12–60)
|
100 %
|
In-nest video; heavily parasitized nestlings had weak begging; parents only fed strongly begging nestlings
|
7 nests sprayed with 1 % permethrin (zero P. downsi)
|
Behavior
|
E
|
O’Connor, Robertson, Kleindorfer 2014 [100]
|
4 Darwin’s finch species
|
Floreana
|
2004–2013
|
238
|
100 %
|
27.5 ± 4.6 (2004) to 48.4 ± 6.5 (2013)
|
50–90 %
|
Across the decade, P. downsi intensity increased (~28 to ~48), in-nest mortality increased (~50 to ~90 %), nestlings died younger (~11 to ~5 days after hatching); pupa size got 10 % smaller (~10 mm to ~9 mm)
|
Compared with other finches, small ground finch nests had more P. downsi pupae, which indicates higher fly reproductive success
|
Ecology
|
O
|
Kleindorfer, Peters, Custance, Dudaniec, O’Connor 2014 [37]
|
3 Darwin’s tree finch species
|
Floreana
|
2005, 2010
|
201
|
100 %
|
25 ± 3–65 ± 18
| |
Hybrid finch nests had 50–79 % fewer P. downsi than medium tree finch (2005, 2010)
|
Contemporary hybridization in Darwin’s tree Finches; evidence for hybrid fitness
|
Behavior, Genetics, Ecology
|
O
|
Kleindorfer, O’Connor, Dudaniec, Myers, Robertson, Sulloway 2014 [7]
|
2 Darwin’s finch species
|
Santa Cruz
|
2010, 2012
|
82
|
100 %
|
25, 38
|
37–56 %
|
Extreme weather events and number of P. downsi influenced nesting success
|
Species differences in P. downsi intensity
|
Ecology
|
O
|
Cimadom, Ulloa, Meidl, Zöttl, Zöttl, Fessl, Nemeth, Dvorak, Cunninghame, Tebbich 2014 [36]
|
4 Darwin’s finch species
|
Santa Cruz
|
2013
|
37 (17 control, 20 exp.) plus 26 nests checked for treated cotton
| |
17 ± 3.9
|
46 %
|
Parasitized nests had 35 % lower fledging success
|
Permethrin-treated cotton from dispensers in 22 nests; 20 nests sprayed with 1 % permethrin (zero P. downsi)
|
Ecology
|
E
|
Knutie, McNew, Bartlow, Vargas, Clayton 2014 [70]
|
Small ground finch
|
Floreana
|
2010
|
14 (8 control, 6 exp.)
|
100 %
|
24.2 ± 2.7
| |
Parasitized nestlings had larger relative (39 %) and absolute (3.3 mm) naris size compared with parasite-free nestlings (20.2 %, 1.6 mm)
|
6 nests sprayed with 1 % permethrin (zero P. downsi); museum specimens had normal naris size suggesting post 1960s arrival of P. downsi
|
Ecology, Morphology
|
E
|
Kleindorfer, Sulloway 2016 [30]
|
3 Darwin’s finch species
|
Floreana
|
2004–2014
|
582
|
100 %
|
17.7 ± 3.3–87.8 ± 19.5
| |
Higher fly traps caught more female P. downsi; higher finch nests had more P. downsi
|
28 McPhail traps placed at 1 m–7 m to test for fly sex ratio at different trapping heights
|
Behavior, Ecology
|
E
|
Kleindorfer, Peters, Hohl, Sulloway 2016 [71]
|
Medium ground finch, mockingbird
|
Santa Cruz
|
2012, 2013
|
127
| | | |
P. downsi density (grams per nestling g) predicted finch but not mockingbird mortality; no P. downsi antibodies in nestlings; parasitized mockingbird but not finch nestlings begged more
|
32 finch nests and 34 mockingbird nests prayed with 1 % permethrin
|
Behavior, Ecology
|
E
|
Knutie, Owen, McNew, Bartlow, Arriero, Herman, DiBlasi, Thompson, Koop, Clayton 2016 [105]
|